Apartheid

 

South Africa is a land rich in natural resources, with a mild climate and fertile lands capable of feeding the world if cultivated intensively. However, many Europeans viewed Africa as the "Dark Continent," associating it with poverty, harsh weather, and political instability. The roots of racial oppression in Africa date back to the mid-17th century when the Dutch East India Company established a provisioning station at the Cape (US Government Source).

 

In the mid-17th century, white settlers from the Netherlands arrived in South Africa, displacing or exploiting the native inhabitants. The "Scramble for Africa" in the 18th and 19th centuries saw various European powers, including the French, British, Portuguese, Germans, Belgians, Spanish, and Dutch, colonizing and exerting control over much of the African continent (Woods 15). South Africa, which was then divided into four major colonies, witnessed this fragmentation.

 

By 1910, these four colonies were unified under the Act of the Union, and local whites were entrusted with the country's administration. However, this union maintained strict regulations on the rights of black individuals and stripped them of parliamentary representation. In the ensuing three decades leading up to the establishment of apartheid, racial segregation and white dominance were evident in various aspects, including land ownership, legal system, wealth distribution, and social interactions. Apartheid, officially instituted by Dr. D.F. Malan's nationalist party, which came into power in 1948, solidified the existing racial segregation and dominance through the implementation of three hundred and seventeen laws. Even prior to 1948, the Nationalist Party was concerned about the influx of Africans into white towns, leading to restrictions on where they could reside. Over the next four decades, various bills were passed to minimize the movement of Africans into these towns, reinforcing political, economic, and social control.

In 1949 and 1950, South Africa took its first steps towards formalizing racial segregation through two key laws: the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act and the Immorality Act. These acts forbade sexual relations and marriage between white individuals and Africans. Additionally, everyone above the age of sixteen was required to carry identity cards that classified them into different racial groups.

 

The Groups Areas Act of 1950 further entrenched segregation by restricting Africans from entering urban, industrial, and agricultural areas, reserving them exclusively for whites. Only certain individuals, such as workers, housemaids, or gardeners with state permission, were allowed in these designated areas. Families were also separated if they didn't have the required permission. If Africans were found with family members without the necessary authorization, they faced arrest and imprisonment upon inspection.

 

The Population Registration Act of the same year mandated that all South African residents be categorized into three racial groups: African, Colored, or White. The government determined these classifications based on a person's habits, education, appearance, and manner. Strict rules were imposed based on race, and adherence was crucial to avoid severe consequences.

 

The Bantu Authorities Act of 1951 relegated all Black people to their native lands, effectively stripping them of power and influence. The Bantu Education Act extended apartheid to the educational system, segregating the education of Whites, Africans, and Colored individuals, with separate administration and funding (refer to Colonial Education).

 

In 1952, the Abolition of Passes and Coordination of Documents Act made it mandatory for all Africans to carry a pass-book, similar to a passport. This document included personal details like name, photograph, and fingerprints, as well as information about employment and performance. Failure to comply led to expulsion from the area, and the offense was recorded in the pass-book. The penalty for not having the book at all times ranged from imprisonment and fines to even more severe consequences, including possible death.

During the era of apartheid in South Africa, every aspect of life, including education, was heavily influenced. Schools were segregated based on race, with different institutions for whites, Indians, Coloured, and Africans. White education fell under the control of the Dept. of National Education, while Indian, Coloured, and African education was overseen by the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

 

In terms of funding, per capita expenditure on education during 1980 to 1981 was significantly higher for whites, around 1000 rands, compared to Africans, which was only 200 rands. Many African schools faced constant repair needs and frequently experienced shortages of classrooms. The student-to-teacher ratio in white schools was 1:18, while in African schools, it was 1:48 in 1981. Due to the inadequacies in the African education system, many students did not progress beyond primary school. In contrast, white children were required to attend school until the age of fifteen. By 1980, a survey revealed that for an African school to match the curriculum of a white school, their expenditures would need to be tripled.

 

One of the earliest political organizations opposing apartheid was Lubumba Yama Afrika, which advocated for African unity as the key to dismantling the apartheid system. This party emerged in the 19th century and inspired numerous other parties in its wake. Opposition to apartheid also drew influence from external sources, including Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence.

 

In 1960, the Sharpeville Massacre unfolded when a large group of Africans protested by refusing to carry their pass-books. This led to a state of emergency being declared in the region, lasting for 156 days and resulting in 69 deaths and 190 injuries.

 

Nelson Mandela's involvement with the ANC (African National Congress) grew during World War II, aiming to transform it into a mass movement. By 1952, Mandela was elected National Volunteer-in-Chief, tasked with organizing resistance against discrimination. Mandela's activism led to his arrest and imprisonment multiple times, but he remained steadfast in his fight for equal rights through non-violent means.

 

The international community began paying attention to apartheid, influenced by the civil rights movement in the U.S. and the wave of decolonization in Asia and Africa. The United Nations imposed sanctions, and various countries took measures such as denying South African airways and boycotting South African goods.

 

In 1990, President F.W. de Klerk announced the formal end of apartheid, leading to the repeal of all apartheid laws by 1991. While racism persists, South Africa is undergoing significant changes, with efforts to stimulate growth, create jobs, and integrate the workforce. Foreign countries are increasingly integrating South Africa into their business ventures, reflecting a transformed nation that continues to evolve.