H J Markowitsch, "Cultural Memory and the Neurosciences" (Summary)

To comprehend cultural memory, it's crucial to first grasp memory in its general context. Up until the 1970s, scientists predominantly viewed memory as a unified function present across most animal species, albeit with variations in learning acquisition such as gradient, capacity, differentiation, and behavioral-cognitive flexibility. Gagné proposed a hierarchical sequence or taxonomy of learning, which included:

 

Signal learning or classical conditioning: Illustrated by Pavlov's famous experiment, where a dog learns to associate a ringing bell with food and salivates at the sound alone.

Stimulus-response learning or instrumental conditioning: Dependent on the subject's behavior, where the association between a stimulus and a response is learned.

Chaining (including verbal association): Involves consecutive responses where each determines the next, leading to a reward.

Multiple discrimination: Learning to differentiate between stimuli sharing one or more attributes.

Concept learning: Learning to respond similarly to various objects or attributes sharing common characteristics.

Principle learning: Acquiring knowledge on solving a set of problems with common attributes.

Problem solving: Applying learned principles to draw inferences and solve problems.

Memory, by definition, is based on learning and involves the learning-dependent storage of acquired information, integrated selectively into neuronal structures. Memory can be retrieved for situation-appropriate behavior. The evolution of memory study shifted dramatically with Tulving's work on episodic and semantic memory, and further investigations of amnesic patients revealed that memory deficits are not universal. This led to a paradigm shift in understanding memory, where it was divided into processes and systems.

 

Previously, memory was classified into short-term and long-term memory. However, the new approach distinguishes between implicit and explicit memories, encoded with or without conscious reflection. Moreover, long-term memory is now divided into five basic systems, representing a significant advancement in understanding memory processes.

 

Procedural Memory: Psychology and neuroscience posit that children initially learn through motor movements, understanding that their actions influence their environment, like making a mobile move. This learning expands to various motor-related functions, such as skiing, biking, driving, or playing musical instruments. These processes operate automatically and unconsciously, freeing individuals from reflective thinking in routine situations. For example, when asked about shifting gears while driving, many would instinctively respond with "press the clutch," showcasing the automatic nature of procedural memory.

 

Priming: Similarly, priming, another memory system, operates unconsciously and aids in daily situations. It's estimated that around 95% of the information we process occurs unconsciously. An example of priming is when hearing a melody on the radio automatically brings to mind the song's lyrics. This phenomenon is often utilized in advertising, where repeated exposure to stimuli within a short time frame influences consumer behavior.

 

Perceptual Memory: In contrast to procedural memory and priming, perceptual memory operates consciously and allows for identifying familiar objects or patterns based on familiarity judgments. It enables recognizing objects like apples regardless of color or condition, distinguishing them from other fruits like pears or peaches.

 

Semantic Memory: Semantic memory involves conscious knowledge of general facts, distinguishing true from false statements, like knowing Oslo is the capital of Norway.

 

Episodic-Autobiographical Memory: This memory system, considered the highest, involves mental time travel backward and forward, evaluating events in relation to oneself and the social context, often laden with emotions.

 

Cultural Memory: Cultural memory doesn't neatly fit into this hierarchy. While it may seem to belong to higher memory systems, it's diverse and interconnected with semantic, procedural, and priming memory systems. Cultural memories are transmitted across generations and can include habits and practices that are not genetically determined but learned from society. Neuroscientific research emphasizes the interplay between brain activity and social environment, suggesting a shift towards understanding "collective remembering" rather than just individual memory.

 

The term "ecphory," originally introduced by Semon and later refined by Tulving, describes the process by which retrieval cues interact with stored information to bring forth a representation of that information. Similar to encoding, where various cues, conditions, and emotional states interact with new information, ecphory involves an interaction with present environmental and social factors. This interaction with the present environment and cultural context shapes the retrieval and recollection of old information, including traditions and myths. Cultural memory, therefore, involves a continuous adaptation influenced by the current environment and social partners.

 

The phenomenon of the "reminiscence bump," commonly observed in autobiographical memory research, illustrates this interaction. Memories often recalled are from the period around age 25, a time when significant life changes occur, and individuals gain substantial knowledge about themselves and their society. This period facilitates the consolidation of memories and the development of self-awareness within a socio-cultural context, contributing to autonoetic consciousness.

 

However, there are contrasting tendencies in different cultural contexts. While individuality is highly valued in Western societies, leading to earlier development of self-awareness, other cultures emphasize collective identity, delaying individual self-awareness. Moreover, contemporary culture, heavily influenced by media and professional activities, shapes individuals' sense of self more profoundly than in the past.

 

The concept of being "in relation" extends beyond interpersonal connections to interactions with tools and technology, as demonstrated in Hutchins' study on cockpit instruments. Similarly, individual brilliance or societal memory relies on comparisons within a social context. Neuroscience explores the relationship between behavior and brain function, emphasizing the interplay between individual cognition and social context.

 

Communicative memory encompasses both collective memory in society and memories stored within individual brains. Collective memory failures, such as societal amnesia regarding historical atrocities, can impact individuals' psychological well-being across generations. Conversely, communicative memories transmitted across generations, as seen in the descendants of Holocaust survivors, can influence brain development and vulnerability to trauma.