The concept of "communicative memory"
originates from a refinement of Maurice Halbwachs's notion of
"collective" memory into two distinct forms: "cultural" and
"communicative" memory, as proposed by Aleida and Jan Assmann.
"Cultural memory" encompasses all knowledge that guides behavior and
experience within a society across generations through repeated societal
practices and initiations. In contrast, "communicative memory" refers
to interactive practices within the tension between individuals' and groups'
recall of the past. Unlike "cultural" memory, which maintains a
distance from the everyday, "communicative memory" is characterized
by its proximity to daily experiences and is bound to living bearers of memory
and communicators of experiences. Its temporal horizon shifts in relation to
the present, spanning approximately three to four generations.
While "cultural memory" is supported by fixed
points like texts, rites, monuments, and commemorations, "communicative
memory" involves the willful agreement of group members regarding their
collective past and its meaning within the identity-specific narrative of the
group. Despite their theoretical separation, in practice, the forms and methods
of "cultural" and "communicative memory" are
interconnected, leading to dynamic changes in cultural memory over time.
This classic definition of "communicative
memory" primarily focuses on group and societal communicative practices,
leaving questions about individual communicative memory and its mediation
levels between the social and autobiographical aspects largely unaddressed.
However, in practice, these memory forms intermingle, forming the complex
landscape of "communicative memory."
In addition to these conceptual distinctions, the study
of memory and remembering has uncovered the intricate relationship between
individual and social memory frameworks. "Social memory" refers to
the collective transport and communication of the past and interpretations of
the past through non-intentional means. Four media of social memory formation
include records, cultural products like plays and films, spaces such as urban
planning and architecture, and direct interactions. Each of these media
contributes to the transmission and shaping of historical narratives within
social contexts, influencing individual consciousness and perception of events.
Thus, the interplay between individual experiences, societal frameworks, and
cultural products creates a complex network of memory formation and
transmission.
The city, for both residents and passers-by, appears as a
dynamic entity shaped by repeated reconfigurations and overlapping layers of
history. Interestingly, what is no longer present often holds a greater
influence on memory than what has been built over or reconstructed. Furthermore,
experiences of landscapes can vary in memory depending on one's mental and
physical state at the time. Kurt Lewin's work on the "war landscape"
illustrates how an observer's perception of the environment is influenced by
their military actions, with landscapes appearing differently during advances
versus retreats.
Direct interactions serve as another form of social
memory, encompassing communicative practices that either directly involve
discussing the past or subtly reference it. Developmental psychology has
highlighted the role of "memory talk" in shaping autobiographical
memory within shared practices. This communicative actualization of experienced
pasts continues throughout life, even when not explicitly discussing the past.
These forms of social memory collectively constitute what
can be termed an "exogrammatic memory system." Unlike engrams, which
represent internal neuronal activation patterns corresponding to memories,
exograms refer to external memory content used to cope with current demands and
plan for the future. Exograms encompass a wide range of content, including
written, oral, symbolic, and habitual forms. This externalization of memory is
a crucial aspect of human cognition, providing stable and accessible records
that transcend individual existence and personal experience.
The evolution of symbolic representation, as highlighted
by Merlin Donald, has greatly enriched human cognition by expanding memory
storage capabilities. Exograms, in contrast to impermanent engrams, offer
stable and virtually unlimited memory records that are consciously accessible
and infinitely reformattable. This dual system of internal and external
representation distinguishes human consciousness and facilitates unique forms
of memory transmission and cultural evolution.
Autobiographical memory serves as a functional system
that integrates various memory systems, including procedural memory, priming,
perceptual memory, semantic memory, and episodic memory. While episodic and
autobiographical memory were previously indistinguishable on the neuronal
level, recent empirical evidence suggests that autobiographical memory operates
as a socially constituted system, amplifying content rather than altering the
functional aspects of episodic memory. It integrates these memory systems into
a functional unit, ensuring synchronization between individuals and fluctuating
social groups.
Our autobiographical memory, which shapes our sense of
self, develops through social exchange processes. It not only incorporates
content formed in collaboration with others but also relies on social formation
for its structural organization. This memory system, central to our identity,
guides our actions based on intuitive associations, often outside our conscious
control. It synthesizes our individual autonomy with our dependence on social
entities and our physical bodies, creating a seamless continuity in our
self-perception across time and situations.
This ego, rooted in our life history and shared memory
community, is a self-misunderstanding, yet a necessary and meaningful one. As
Hans-Georg Gadamer suggested, autobiography "reprivatizes" history,
emphasizing that we belong to history rather than it belonging to us. Our
self-concept, shaped by Western individualism, masks our deep connection to
others, both close and distant, underscoring our unique yet interconnected
existence.
Autobiographical memory plays a crucial role in ontogeny,
facilitating the synchronization of individuals with their social environment.
Individualization and socialization are concurrent processes, shaping one's
identity within a co-evolutionary environment. As humans adapt to their
ever-changing social and cultural contexts, autobiographical memory serves as a
relay, ensuring coherence and continuity amidst fluctuating social demands.
This desire for continuity extends beyond individual
wishes, as social groups and societies rely on the consistent identity of their
members for cooperation and cohesion. Norbert Elias highlighted the importance
of understanding human psycho- and sociogenesis within the context of a
pre-existing human form shaped by cultural and social evolution. Development
psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Daniel Stern, and Michael Tomasello
emphasize that humans learn to function within their societies through
interaction and social learning, rather than through internalization.
The developmental trajectory of memory unfolds from the
social realm to the individual sphere, transitioning from an early stage where
infants lack autobiographical memory and perceive things as they are to a stage
where preschoolers gradually comprehend the self in relation to time. Through
language and cognitive development, individuals evolve into autobiographical
selves that integrate past and future experiences into a cohesive life story,
blending social and individual elements.
The regulation of a child's behavior, initially guided by
caregivers, gradually transitions to self-regulation. Autobiographical memory
serves as a declaratively accessible form of self-regulation, while other
memory systems provide implicit forms of regulation, accessible situationally.
Ontogenetic development involves two transformations:
historical changes in perception, communication, and upbringing practices, and
individual changes in relationships with others and oneself. Autobiographical
memory, primarily constituted externally, requires constant reinforcement from
social interactions. This external aspect is often overlooked due to an
individualistic self-image, yet it significantly contributes to the full
capacity of human memory.
Communicative memory encompasses various cognitive
processes that operate unconsciously during interactions. These processes
include language decoding, logical reasoning, semantic interpretation, and
memory retrieval. While these operations occur swiftly and flexibly, they
typically do not enter consciousness unless misunderstandings arise. The
unconscious plays a vital role in human existence by facilitating efficient and
free conscious action.
Conscious communicative practices involve the attribution
of meaning to social interactions, with individuals inferring intentions and
actions of others in real-time. Emphasizing the emotional dimension and
atmospheric nuances of narratives, communicative practices often shape the
interpretation of past events more than the events themselves. Both individual
and collective narratives are continuously reshaped in response to new
experiences and present needs, reflecting the functional value of the past for
future orientations and options.
Memory and the act of remembering are inherently
interdisciplinary fields, particularly when considering that only humans
possess autobiographical memory, which must be learned, and that memory has
both a biological basis and cultural content. Interdisciplinary projects, like
those studying age-specific memory development, have already produced initial
findings, with more expected to follow. However, there may be a shift towards
the genesis of a new sub-discipline, potentially termed "social
neuroscience," which would integrate various disciplines' findings into a
cohesive framework.
The current state of research reveals varying levels of
sophistication and theoretical approaches across disciplines. Neuroscience
tends to focus on individual brain function, lacking perspectives from social
interaction and communication theories. Conversely, humanities and social
sciences often discuss memory formation without considering fundamental
bio-social factors. Bridging these gaps is essential, especially in disciplines
like life-writing research and oral history, which rely on subjective evidence
but could benefit from insights from neuroscientific memory research.
One challenge in current research is the international
heterogeneity of the field. While German-language discourse on memory is highly
synthesized, the Anglo-American realm lags behind. Additionally, memory
research in the humanities and social sciences tends to be politically and
normatively contextualized, leading to variations in concepts and terminologies
across nations. In contrast, neuroscientific research is more consistent
internationally but may not fully account for the constitutive conditions of
memory or the implications of its findings.
Ultimately, the essence of Communicative Memory may never
be fully comprehended through scientific analysis alone. Aesthetic approaches,
such as literary autobiographies and films, often provide deeper insights into
Communicative Memory, as they are not constrained by the need for scientific proof
and verification. These artistic mediums offer a unique perspective that
complements scientific research in understanding the complexities of memory and
remembering.
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