• Critics argue that existing theories of patriarchy have shortcomings in addressing historical and cross-cultural variations in gender inequality and differences between women, especially in relation to ethnicity and class.
• The paper proposes a new theory of patriarchy that considers these criticisms.
• Patriarchy is defined as a system of social structures and practices where men dominate, oppress, and exploit women.
• Patriarchy is conceptualized at different levels of abstraction, including the patriarchal mode of production, patriarchal relations in paid work, patriarchal relations in the state, male violence, patriarchal relations in sexuality, and patriarchal relations in cultural institutions.
• The paper argues that patriarchy is not reducible to capitalism, even in a mediated way.
• Dual systems analysis focuses on the relationship between capitalism and patriarchy, arguing that both pre-date and post-date capitalism.
• Hartmann's conception of the relation between capitalism and patriarchy argues that patriarchy pre-dates capitalism and this expropriation of women's labor is not new and distinctive to capitalist societies.
• The problem with dual systems analysis is whether they can adequately sustain the duality of capitalism and patriarchy in their analyses.
• Conflicts over the exploitation of women's labor between patriarchal and capitalist interests have been present throughout history, with employers seeking cheap labour from women and husbands resisting this process.
• The conflict between patriarchy and capitalism has varied according to the localized power of male workers, employers, and women.
• Critics argue that there are significant differences between the labor market experience of women of color due to racist structures disadvantageing them in paid work.
Critiques of the Concept ofPatriarchy
• Essentialism, ahistoricism, and universalism critique the concept of patriarchy. Essentialist theories produce an ahistoric and universalistic theory of patriarchy.
• Feminist theorists propose four forms of relations necessary for patriarchy: biological reproduction, heterosexuality, marriage, and the nuclear family.
• The absence of patriarchal relations in paid work, in the state, and in male violence is questioned.
• The author discusses key patriarchal structures within a realist framework, focusing on six main structures: a patriarchal mode of production, patriarchal relations within waged labor, the patriarchal state, male violence, patriarchal relations in sexuality, and patriarchal culture.
• The author argues that the concept of patriarchy must balance reducing the complexity of the world to a limited number of elements to produce analytic power and not over-simplifying to capture the specifics of the situation.
• The structure of housework has been analyzed in three stages: the domestic division of labor, other aspects of social relations, and inequality.
• Patriarchal relations in paid work form the second structure of the patriarchal structure, affecting women's access to paid work and the segregation of women within it.
• Changes in patriarchal domination in paid work are key to understanding changes in women's oppression in Britain over the last two centuries.
Understanding the Impact of State and Patriarchal Structures on Gender Relations
State's Role in Gender Relations
• The state is a patriarchal structure that significantly impacts gender relations.
• Women are excluded from access to state resources and power due to their lack of power within gendered political forces.
• The state's decision-making positions and resolution of issues favor women are less represented than men.
Patriarchal Relations in the State
• Patriarchal relations shape rules on divorce, marriage, fertility, wage discrimination, sexuality, male homosexuality, prostitution, pornography, male violence, housing priorities for battered women, and belief systems.
• Male violence is a social structural nature and is constituted by various practices including rape, beating, father/daughter incest, flashing, sexual harassment at work, and sexual assault.
Sexuality and Patriarchal Culture
• Sexuality is a significant patriarchal structure, particularly in the context of heterosexuality.
• It guides women towards marriage as a desirable goal and through their sexualisation and simult sexuality.
• Sexuality is more important in constructing social relations than is customary in social theory, but less important than that accorded it by many radical feminist writers.
Patriarchal Culture and Forms
• Patriarchal culture is a diverse set of practices that shape gendered subjectivity and gender distinction.
• Discourses on femininity and masculinity are institutionalized in all social life sites, including religions, media, and education.
Public and Private Forms of Patriarchy
• In recent Western history, there have been two major forms of patriarchy: public and private.
• In Britain, the form of patriarchy prevalent in Britain is more public, with women subordinated in the public sphere.
• Public forms of patriarchy are divided into two: one based on the state and the U.S.A.
• The theory of patriarchy suggests that certain historically specific forms of patriarchy depend on the relations between its structures.
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