Ralph Waldo Emerson, "The American Scholar" (Summary)

The American Scholar is a speech delivered by Emerson at Harvard in 1837. Emerson published the speech as a pamphlet and reissued it in 1838. In 1841, he included the essay in his book Essays, changing its title to "The American Scholar"

The speech begins with an introduction (paragraphs 1-7) where Emerson explains that he wants to discuss, the scholar as an important part of being human: the scholar is "Man Thinking." The rest of the essay is divided into four sections. The first three sections explore how nature (paragraphs 8-9), the past and books (paragraphs 10-20), and action (paragraphs 21-30) all shape the education of a thinking person. In the final section (paragraphs 31-45), Emerson talks about the responsibilities of scholars and shares his views on America during his time.

Emerson starts the speech by emphasizing the key idea that runs throughout the essay: the need for an independent American intellectual community that no longer relies on European authority. He describes this as "the first clarion of an American literary renaissance," encouraging Americans to find their creative inspiration within their own country, similar to what Walt Whitman would do in Leaves of Grass eighteen years later. In the second paragraph, he makes it clear that "The American Scholar" represents an abstract ideal rather than a specific person.

In the next five paragraphs, Emerson shares an allegory that supports his argument. He refers to an ancient fable about "One Man" who was divided into many individuals to make society work better. Ideally, everyone would contribute their part to keep society functioning properly. However, society has become so divided that it no longer serves its citizens well. As a result, the scholar, who is part of this society, has also declined. Instead of being a "Man Thinking," the scholar has become just "a mere thinker." Emerson aims to fix this issue by reminding his audience of how true scholars are educated and what their responsibilities should be.

In the first section about how a scholar should be educated, Emerson imagines nature as a teacher. He believes that when people observe the natural world, they can eventually see the similarities between their own minds and nature. The first similarity he highlights is the idea of circular power, which is a theme he discusses in his essay Nature. Both nature and the scholar's spirit are eternal and boundless, having no clear beginning or end.

Another similarity between the scholar and nature, as seen in Nature, is order. Initially, the mind perceives a chaotic reality filled with endless individual facts. Over time, it learns to organize these facts into categories and to make comparisons. People discover nature's laws, which they can understand because they resemble how the intellect works. Ultimately, we come to see that nature and the soul, which Emerson describes as stemming from "one root," reflect each other. Emerson even states that nature is the "opposite" of the soul. Therefore, a deeper understanding of nature leads to greater self-awareness, and vice versa. The phrases "Know thyself" and "Study nature" are essentially the same idea.

Emerson spends a lot of time discussing the second influence on the mind: past learning, or the impact of books. In the first three paragraphs of this section, he points out that books hold the knowledge of the past, but they also come with significant risks. While books can transform fleeting facts into lasting truths, every book only tells a partial truth, shaped by the society in which it was written. Each era needs to create its own books and discover its own truths.

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Emerson warns that books can also distract scholars from original thinking. Being overly respectful of past thinkers can prevent us from exploring new ideas and finding our own truths. The worst example of this is the "bookworm," a pedant who fixates on minor details of scholarship and ignores broader, universal ideas. Such a person becomes passive and uncreative, which is the opposite of Emerson's vision of a creative mind: "Man hopes. Genius creates." A non-creative bookworm is further from God — and thus from nature — than someone who thinks originally.

However, even geniuses can be overly influenced by books. Emerson cites English dramatic poets as an example, saying they have been "Shakespearized" for 200 years, meaning they imitate Shakespeare instead of creating original works. He mentions an Arabic proverb that suggests one fig tree can fertilize another, just as one author can inspire another. True scholars should turn to books only when their own creative thoughts are blocked.

In the last three paragraphs of this section, Emerson discusses the joys and benefits of reading, as long as it’s done the right way. There is a special pleasure in reading because ancient authors thought and felt like people do today, allowing books to transcend time. This is proof of the shared connection among all human minds. He acknowledges that he doesn't undervalue the written word: Great thinkers can benefit from knowledge found in books, but it takes an independent mind to read critically all the time. This kind of reading allows a person to find the core truth in a work while ignoring the less important or biased parts.

Emerson also recognizes that certain readings are vital for an educated person, such as history and science, which require diligent reading and study. Above all, schools should encourage creativity instead of focusing solely on memorizing texts: "Schools can only highly serve us when they aim not to drill, but to create."

In this third section, Emerson talks about how scholars need to take action and engage in physical work. He disagrees with the idea that scholars should avoid practical activities. While action is less important than thought, it is still necessary: "Action is with the scholar subordinate, but it is essential." Not taking action, or failing to apply one's principles, is seen as cowardly. According to Emerson, the idea that the world reflects who we are makes action a natural responsibility for those who think.

Emerson points out how recent actions differ from past actions. He explains that while a person's past deeds can be turned into thoughtful reflections, recent actions are too closely tied to current emotions to undergo this change. He compares recent actions to an insect larva, which eventually transforms into a butterfly — symbolizing how action can evolve into thought.

He also values labor as significant in itself because it serves as the material that scholars creatively use. An active person leads a richer life than one who only lives through the words and thoughts of others. The ideal life has a rhythm that balances thought and action, labor and contemplation: "A great soul will be strong to live, as well as strong to think." This balance shapes a person's character, which is much more valuable than the fame or honor that often comes from simply displaying knowledge.

After discussing how nature, books, and action help educate scholars, Emerson now addresses their responsibilities to society. He starts with general ideas about these obligations and then connects them to the American scholar's situation.

The most important duty of a scholar is to develop strong self-trust and become a source of wisdom for others. Emerson notes that this is a challenging task because scholars must endure poverty, hardship, boredom, loneliness, and other difficulties while pursuing knowledge. They often have to make sacrifices, illustrated by Emerson's examples of two astronomers who spent countless hours observing the stars to make discoveries that benefited humanity. Many readers may question how satisfying this reward truly is when Emerson admits that the scholar "is to find consolation in exercising the highest functions of human nature."

A true scholar is committed to preserving the knowledge of the past and must communicate the noblest thoughts and feelings to the public. This means the scholar — "who raises himself from private considerations and breathes and lives on public illustrious thoughts" — must think and judge independently, regardless of popular opinion, trends, or convenience. Because scholars uncover universal ideas shared by all people, they can connect with individuals from all walks of life: "He is the world's eye. He is the world's heart."

Even though scholars seem to lead quiet and peaceful lives, they need to be courageous because they deal with ideas, which can be dangerous. Self-trust is the foundation of this courage and stems from the belief that all thoughts are interconnected; universal truth exists in everyone, even if not everyone realizes it. Instead of thinking for ourselves, we often look to heroes to give our lives meaning and seek validation from others rather than finding it within ourselves. The highest goal is to improve humanity by embracing our individual natures.

Emerson ends the essay by discussing how different periods in Western civilization, which he calls the Classic, Romantic, and Reflective (or Philosophical) ages, are marked by different main ideas. He admits that while he has focused a lot on the universal connection between human thoughts, he hasn't talked enough about the differences between these ages.

He suggests that civilization evolves similarly to how a person grows from childhood to adulthood. The current age, which is the early 1800s, is one of criticism, especially self-criticism. Some might view this criticism as a weak philosophy, but Emerson believes it is both valid and important. He poses several questions, asking if being unhappy with today’s thoughts and literature is really a bad thing, and concludes that it isn’t. He believes that dissatisfaction is a sign of growth and change: "If there is any period one would desire to be born in, is it not the age of Revolution; when the old and the new stand side by side, and admit of being compared... This [present] time, like all times, is a very good one, if we but know what to do with it."

Emerson praises the English and German romantic poets, like Wordsworth and Goethe, for finding inspiration and greatness in the lives of ordinary people. Unlike traditional literature that focuses only on royalty and the upper class, Romantic writers highlight the beauty and significance of the lives of working-class individuals. Their writing is lively and shows the idea that all people are connected. Ironically, even though Emerson started the essay by encouraging Americans to break free from European influences on their culture, he now acknowledges that some European traditions do celebrate the lives of common people, unlike the tradition that only focuses on kings and queens: "We have listened too long to the courtly muses of Europe."

He specifically mentions the Swedish philosopher and mystic Emanuel Swedenborg, arguing that Swedenborg has not received the recognition he deserves. Swedenborg highlighted the deep connection between the human mind and nature, showing that humans and nature are fundamentally united. Emerson draws much inspiration for his own ideas and writing from Swedenborg's teachings.

In his final thoughts, Emerson focuses on the romantic ideal of individuality, a concept that he believes is a key American idea. This is a topic he explores in greater detail in his essay "Self-Reliance." He believes that scholars should be independent, brave, and original. In their thoughts and actions, scholars must show that America is not as timid as some might think. They should not just repeat the wisdom of the past: ". . . this confidence in the unsearched might of man, belongs by all motives, by all prophecy, by all preparation, to the American Scholar," who will help create a genuine American culture.