Jean-François Lyotard

 

Jean-François Lyotard played a significant role in the discussions on postmodernism during the latter part of the twentieth century. His views diverged notably from Jürgen Habermas, particularly in his disagreement with Habermas' endorsement of Enlightenment ideals, universal reason, and modernity. In his work "Starting from Marx and Freud" (1973), Lyotard expressed reservations about Marxist analytical categories, reflecting a broader skepticism within poststructuralist thought towards Marxist concepts.

 

Lyotard argued that contemporary technocratic and bureaucratic systems had displaced the traditional role of social class. He contended that capitalism and totalitarianism were suppressing what he termed the "libidinal economy of desire." According to Lyotard, the crucial task of experimental art was to act as a revolutionary force, liberating desire from the constraints imposed by these societal structures. In essence, Lyotard saw art as a means to release and explore the untapped dimensions of human desire that he believed were being stifled by modern socio-political systems.

 

In "The Postmodern Condition" (1979), Jean-François Lyotard examines the state of contemporary scientific knowledge. He defines the term "postmodern" as an attitude of skepticism towards overarching narratives, or "metanarratives." According to Lyotard, science is facing a crisis because traditional narratives are no longer effective in legitimizing its rules.

 

Lyotard argues that modern science, while relying on logical inquiry, seeks legitimacy through metadiscourses or "grand narratives" such as the Enlightenment narrative, which promotes ideals like human emancipation, reason, and justice. However, he notes that these metanarratives are becoming obsolete, leading to a crisis in metaphysics and institutions like universities that embody them.

 

In the postmodern era, Lyotard suggests that narratives lose their central purpose and become fragmented into diverse language games. Political attempts to homogenize and judge everything based on criteria like operability and efficiency are seen as a form of coercion. Instead of seeking legitimacy through rational consensus, Lyotard argues for a postmodern knowledge that enhances sensitivity to differences and strengthens the ability to tolerate the incomprehensible.

 

Lyotard contends that realism is outdated because today's reality is destabilized, and capitalism constantly challenges familiar objects and institutions. Attempts by the market to stabilize and simplify reality aim to reassure consumers but are criticized for avoiding a deeper exploration of reality. Mass communication, he argues, often perpetuates conformity rather than encouraging critical examination.

 

In terms of science and industry, Lyotard suggests that their relation to reality is problematic, as they don't merely describe or represent reality. This displacement of the relation to reality is evident in the technological criterion, where consensus among political or industrial partners determines what is considered real. Despite the criteria in use, Lyotard acknowledges that both capitalism and science emerged as traditional certainties about the nature of reality, such as metaphysical, religious, and political beliefs, declined over time.

Lyotard argues that the emergence of modernity, whenever it happens, involves a breaking of beliefs and a realization of the lack of a single reality. Instead, it leads to the invention of various realities.

 

According to Lyotard, both modern and postmodern art share an aesthetic of the sublime. They both step away from representing reality directly and aim to show that there are aspects of experience that cannot be adequately presented. However, they approach the connection between what can be presented and what can be imagined in different ways. Modern art highlights the imagination's limitation in presenting the unpresentable, while postmodern art emphasizes the capacity of imagination to create new rules and forms.

 

In the realm of modern aesthetics, there is a sense of nostalgia, presenting the unpresentable as something absent, yet its form maintains a recognizable consistency. For instance, Proust's work expresses the unpresentable, but its structure remains unified. On the other hand, Joyce's postmodern approach allows the unpresentable to appear within the writing itself, challenging conventional ideas of grammar, syntax, and unity.

 

Lyotard suggests that the postmodern artist is like a philosopher searching for new foundations. Postmodernism, as defined by Lyotard, is an intrinsic part of the modern. A work can only become modern by initially being postmodern—breaking existing rules and seeking new grounding. However, as soon as a new form is established, the need for further exploration arises again.

 

Lyotard concludes by cautioning against those advocating for a return to order and stability, as well as a return to the referent (the real-world object). He argues that such calls essentially demand a return to a coercive and consumer-driven approach that stifles artistic creativity.

 

 

 

In his article "Defining the Postmodern," Lyotard describes modernity as a break from the past and the start of new ways of living and thinking. He outlines three key features of postmodernity. Firstly, postmodernism differs from modernism by no longer aiming for general emancipation or believing in progress with intentionality and freedom. Postmodern style involves creating from a mix of quotes from different styles and periods, known as bricolage.

 

A second aspect of postmodernism involves losing faith in the idea that arts, technology, and liberty would universally benefit humanity. The shared belief in enterprises contributing to human emancipation has been shattered due to suspicions of crimes against humanity in economic and political liberalism and Marxism. Lyotard argues that no form of thought or universal progress project can fully account for events like Auschwitz.

 

Additionally, the failure of the modern project is evident in the division of humankind into those dealing with complexity and those focused on the ancient task of survival. Finally, postmodernity, as Lyotard suggests in his concluding remarks, is expressed in literature and art through an examination of the foundations and assumptions of modernity itself.

 

Lyotard's role in the late twentieth-century debates on postmodernism included opposing Habermas' support for Enlightenment ideals, universal reason, and modernity.

 

 

In his work "Starting from Marx and Freud" (1973), he expressed reservations about Marxist analytical categories, reflecting a broader skepticism within poststructuralist thought toward Marxist concepts.

 

Lyotard argued that in contemporary societies dominated by technocratic and bureaucratic systems, the traditional role of social class had been displaced. He believed that capitalism and totalitarianism suppressed the "libidinal economy of desire." Lyotard saw experimental art as having revolutionary potential, capable of unleashing suppressed desires and countering constraints imposed by capitalist and totalitarian forces. This perspective reflected his broader critique of modern socio-political structures and his advocacy for a more liberated understanding of human desire.